The "medicine-man", or, Indian and Eskimo notions of medicine [electronic resource] : a paper read before the Bathurst and Rideau Medical Association, Ottawa, 20th January, 1886

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THE "MEDICINE-MAN";

OK,

INDIAN AN^D ESKIMO NOTIONS 01- MEDICINB.

A Paper read before the Bathurst and Rideau Medical Association,
Ottawa, 20th January, 1886.

BY

ROBERT BELL, B.A.Sc, M.D., LLD.,

Assistant Dikectok of the GKoi.or.iCAL Survey of Canada,

Ri'printrd from the " Canada Medical and Simfical Journal " for March

and April, 188(3.

GAZETTE PRINTING COMPANY.

CoUectiorv

1

-^

KKPUINTKD FROM TIIH - CAXAKA MKDK'AL .V' SUKr,ICAL JOUliyAL."

MAKCU-APKIL, 18«t>.

THI- "MEDICINEMAN";
Or Indian and Eskimo Notions of Medicine.

A fttjn r read hifvri tin- Hallnirst (uid Jiidran Medical A-^soci'dimi, Ollinnj,

'2()th Jinmirij, ISSC.

I'.v UOBKRT HELL, B.A.Sc , M.D, LL.I>,
AbBibiiut Directui of the Geological Survey of Canada.

Last year, having had tlie houor ot" reading before you a paper
on " Diseases among the Indians," I would now beg to follow it
with a short account of the notions of these people on the sub-
ject of medicine.

The science of medicnie has now arrived at such perfection
among civilized nations that we have almost forgotten the crude
beginnings out of which our present knowledge has been gradu-
ally evolved. Lut from our pinnacle of learning, it is curious
and interesting to observe the darkness amidst which some of
our fellow-men are groping even yet. The false and mistaken
notions as to the principles and practice of medicine which pre-
vailed among our forefathers are recalled by some of those in
vogue among the red-men ; and while, in the light of our own
superior knowledge, we may be disposed to laugh at their primi-
tive ideas, we are reminded that many — perhaps the majority —
of the doctrines once taught among our own people were absurd
enough.

It is very difficult for a white man to learn precisely what the
aborigines' views on medical subjects really are. Indians are
by nature very reticent, and they appear to be afraid of ridicule ;

or in some cases they are jealous of giving pway what they con-
sider valuable secrets. It is seldom, indeed, that a white man
gains their confidence sufficiently to induce them tosjic;!!; unre-
servedly on this subject. Even with a good knowledge oi" the
Indian ch": actor, one re(iuires to gain an insight into this sub-
ject by slow degrees — first, perhaps, by observing an<l studying
their actions ; and after having ascertained a few facts, l>y judi-
cious and serious (juestioniug, as opportunities arise, one may
build on these and ask further (piestions until he learns the
greater part of what is current among them.

Many [>eoplc speak of " the Indians " as if all tribes were
alike in every respect. But, in truth, there are great difierences.
Those with whom I am best ac(|uainted pcisonally, from about
thirty years' intercourse, are the various branches of the wide-
spreading Cree or Outchipwai stock. I have also had some
exj)erience of the Eskimo, who differ widely from all the other
aborigines of the continent, and who are not ranked as Indians

at all.

Among the Outchipwais, the term " medicine" does not mean
strictly material remedies or the practice of the healing art, but
rather a general power or influence, ot which that of drugs is
only one variety. Hence a "medicine-man" is not simply a
doctor of medicine, but a sort of i)riest, prophet, medium and
soothsayer. He is also a juggler, conjurer, sorcerer or magician
and general dealer in the supernatural. A mere knowledge of
medicine proper is rather one of the lower oi' accessory branches
of his profession, and it is often practiced b\' those who have no
pretensions to be considered full-fledged medicine-men. Even
women sometimes obtain great reputations as doctors. To tha
medicine-man a knowledge of drugs is valuable, principally to
enable him to carry out different kinds of poisoning as may best
serve his ends. His most important function and the secret of
his power is his dealing in occult influences.

In former times, the great medicine-men among these Indians
devoted their whole lives to the study and practice of their art,
and even yet it receives the greater part of their attention.
They were accustomed to do no common work, but lived at the

8

expense of the band they were amongst. They had t^i-eat influ-
ence with the people, principally from preying upon the super-
stitious fears which had become inculcated by their own class
from generation to generation for this express purpose. For
the medicine-men form a secret society, with exclusive privi-
leges, and they exercise a terrible influence in degrading their
people. The seeming respect which is accorded to them is
begotten of cowardly fear which has formed part of the educa-
tion of the rank and file. They pretend to dispense good and
bad luck, to control the weather, to Ix; able to influence the
movements of game and fish so as to bring plenty or starvation
to the tribe, to predict events, to tell the fortunes of individuals,
to bring about the sickness or death of men or dogs at a dis-
tance, and generally to have the confidence and cooperation of
both good and bad spirits, with whom they communicate freely
i>n certain set occasions.

The common people employ them in favor of themselvea or
then- friends, or against their enemies, just as we do lawyers —
for a consideration. It is here that the secret society business
comes to their aid. Among the Outchipwai Indians there are
many hypocrites who have not the manliness to fight their ene-
mies fairly, or to openly resent an injury, or even to tell an
adversary their opinion of him to his face. Such individuals
will smile and profess great friendship, while harboring the bit-
terest enmity and even murderous designs. An Indian may be
living at a considerable distance from the person he wishes to
injure, and in order to gratify his revenge he will hire his
medicine-man to carry out his purpose. But the latter will
never appear on the scene. He will find means to operate
secretly through another medicine-man who may not even be
suspected. As threats are thus often actually followed by the
dire results predicted, persons who may chance to fall sick, or
to meet with any accident, become accustomed to attribute
their misfortune to the machinations of an enemy or to the ill-
will of some medicine-man ; and in order to counteract it, they
must employ another medicine-man to remove the cause. ThuH
the established belief in the powers of the medicine-man brings

much grist to his mill. The "opposing counser' having
received his fee, in the shape of some article of value to an
Indian, will proceed with some grotesque ceremony and pre-
tend to draw to himself and nullify the evil intUience which has
heen trouhling his client. He will atlect to suck out the poison
from the man's body or to go througli agonies of pain, writhing
and twisting himself amidst many groans, as if he were receiv-
ing, all at once, the essence of the disease of his patient. Or
he may make-believe that he has been suddenly struck inter-
nally by some sharp instrument. 'Jlie shock and accompanying
exclamation are followed by spitting blood (usually from having
surreptitiously lanced his gums) and the coughing up of an arrow-
point, or a small piece of sharp bone or stone, which the evil
spirit of the other sorcerer had transferred to him. In u short
time the patient is expected to say he feels better ; otherwise it
is a sort of slight on the '' streniith " of the conjurer's '• medi-
cine." Sometimes the medicine-man will pretend to receive
these sudden internal shockM ^o show the potency of some other
member of the profession distance and the danger resulting

therefrom, and hence the necessity for his own " strong medi-
cine " as an antidote. He will then spit up the mysterious
missile along with some blood, and after a groan or two will
subside with a sigh of relief

One of the modes of conveying an evil influence to a distance
is to make a drawing on a piece of birch bark, or even in the
sand, to represent the figure of the j)erson to be injured, and
then to select the site of the organ, as the heart, lungs, or
bowels, which is to be operated upon. This is then stabbed
through with a sharp instrument, or touched with poison, and
an appropriate charm is repeated at the same time.

The apparent uncertainties of human life and fortune, and
death itself, are thus accounted for, all being controlled by the
medicine-men. A person dies, not from natural causes, but
because it is the pleasure of some one of this all-powerful class
that he should die, and because he has been unable to find
another one capable of counteracting his " medicine."

In order to communicate with the spirits, the medicine-man

must have a special kind of wigwam or retreat erected. This
is done by planting a nuraher of nicely trimmed poles in the
ground in the form of a circle about five or six feet in diameter.
They are fixed in the erect position by being firmly bound
together by hoops at intervals, with a crowning one at the toj).
The poles are lashed to the hoops with spruce roots or other
fastenings. This frame is securely enclosed with bark all the
way up, so that no one can peep in, even if disposed to do so,
which, however, is never attempted. The medicine-man then
gets inside and fastens up the opening. He mutters and sings
at intervals, and then maintains a perfect silence. Suddenly
the medicine wifirwam is violentlv shaken, after which it i«

CD V '

announced that the spirits have arrived and he is ready to
answer questions. T have been present on some of these occa-
sions. A question must generally be accompanied by a fee,
such as a plug of tobacco or a box of matches. The answers
are given in a deep sepulchral voice, and are sometimes direct
and positive, but oftener ambiguous, and, in the latter case,
great ingenuity is sometimes shown in constructing an answer
which will be verified, whichever way events may happen. Or
instead of giving any answer, the attention of the audience
(which is squatted around the wigwam) may be diverted from
the main point of the interrogation by some poetic or entertain-
ing "yarn." When fairly cornered the medicine-man will say
the spirit refuses to answer, is offended or has just left for the
day, his presence being suddenly required elsewhere. Of
course, with experience and intelligence in his favor, the
chances are more than even that his predictions will be ful-
filled, and great stress is laid on every hit, while the failures are
easily forgotten. In this way, even supertitious white servants
of the Hudson's Bay Company and others come to have a
certain faith in these conjurers. The practices of the Indian
medicine-man are evidently closely allied to the old-world witch-
craft.

It may be asked whether these men are themselves sincere
or believe in their own practices. In some cases and to some
extent I think they do, but in others they are clearly guilty of

fraud and trickery. I have known instances wliere, havinj;
become Christians, they have confessed that their forrnoi '.'oiirse
had been all imf)OStnre. Some of them have, however, been
known to become really possessed with terribh' halhicinations.
In regard to the [)ractice of medicine proper, the common
Indian notion of disease is Hiat it is caused by some evil influence,
which must be removed, either by drivin<; off its spirit with the
tom-tom and sinking, or by a charm, and by sut-'kini; or blowing
upon the part affected. The idea of drawing or sucking out the
evil is the prevailing one in their theory of the practice of medi-
cine. A medical practitioner is thus associated with the nature
of a leech. This is well illustrated in the custom of naming
children. Names are given to Indian children by the grand-
father or recognized patriarch of the family-circle or band. The
subject of the first striking dream which he has after the child's
birth fletermincs it3 name. If he dreams of a creature which,
lives by drawing out his food as a woodpecker, which draws
grubs out of trees, or of a leech, but particularly of the mosfjuito,
that most determined and energetic blood-sucker, it is considered
a good omen, and that the child, whether male or female, is to
be regarded as called to the medical professFon. If a male, as
soon as he is grown up, he is put in training to ascertain if the
Great S{)irit really intends him to be a medicine-man. The first
point in the student's education is to try his powers of endurance
and to see if the spirits will reveal themselves to him. For this
purpose he is submitted to tortures, as by cutting and running
wooden skewers through his muscles and by starvation. The
latter is carried out by his retiring to some unfreiiuented place
close to good water, so that he may be tantalized. He selects
a site on the brink of a river or on the end of a point in a lake,
and there builds himself a sort of couch or nest in a tree, or a
jjlatform of poles between three or four trees standing close
together, and stays upon it day after day without food or drink
until he become delirious, if he can stand it so long. At
night he prays earnestly to the Great Spirit to reveal to him
some new thing, and to give to him mysterious or supernatural
power. Before he has had time to perish from hunger and

tliirst, liis friends <^o to relieve him and to iiacertain the result
of liis vi;^ils. It i.s said there are many faihires at the start.
If, however, the candidate he deemed a suitahle sultjeet, he
hecomcs articled to an old practitioner and duly initiated. Only
one student is tul<en a' a time. For some reason, perhaps want
of superior intelli;^en( e and the necessary dispositinn, probationers,
after havini; passed the first ordeal, are often rejected hefore
they have learn m1 much in regard to the mysteries of the
profession.

Their materia medica i- divided into two branches, good medi-
cines and bad. Among the (!rees, if not among other Indians,
twenty classes of drugs are recognized. The (irst_ u'lie are all
good or beneficial medicines, and the rest are all mur.; or less
bad or injurious. The student is first made fainihur with the
good medicines and then the bad, the worst of vll being taught
last. Sohir of their poisons, they pretend, are very dangerous
to handle.

The great maj >rity of then- medicines are vegetable, but some
are derived from animals, as die beaver, the musk-rat, the skunk,
the deer, toads, sn kcs, insects, etc., while olhers are mineral,
as iron pyrites, gypsum, s:ilt, ochres, clays, ashes, etc, Parts
of rare animals, impossible to obtain at the time, may be pres-
cribed as the only means of saving a jiaticnt, who appears sure
to die in any case. One of tlie most curious prejiarations in use
amongst them is the " black poison," the effects of which are well
known around the lakes of the Winnipeg basin and in the Swan
River district. Some time after administration, it changes the
color of an Indian's skin from brownish-yellow or copper-color
to a sooty black, at the same time causing hair to grow on
unusual parts, especially in an Indian, as on the cheek bones,
etc. Its first effects are sickness, headache, and pains in the
back and limbs. Afterwards, ulcerative sores break out in
various parts of the body, chiefly over the joints, more particu-
larly the knuckles. I have tried in vain to ascertain the com-
position of the " black poison," or to obtain a specimen of it.
I have been told by a person who professed to have seen it, that
it is a brown snuff-like powder, with a slight and rather sicken-

8

ing smell. A small quantity administered in food appears to be
sufficient to produce the above effects. One victim, Peter Brass
of Fort Pelly, informed me that it was given to him, unper-
ceived, mixed witli a dish of berries. I have heard it stated
that it manifests its properties if smoked with tol)acco, but this
seems doubtful. It is said to be derived partly from a plant
which does not grow north or east of Lake Winnipeg, possibly
the poison ivy, Rhus toxicodendron. It is also said to contain
the dried acrid matter from glands in the skin of the toad.

Although the medicine-man may have a considerable know-
ledge of the properties of many medicinal agencies within his
reach, he d^ends, for the removal of disease, more on sorcery,
beating the tom-tom, singing, etc., than on the efficiency of drugs.
I have seen a miserable sick Indian, fresh from the hands of the
medicine-man, with his poor body all painted with figures of
tortoises, fishes and other creatures, in order to cure him of some
internal trouble. A great medicine-man will not condescend to
diagnose a case by the tedious process of examining the patient
and asking questions. He is supposed to know all about it with-
out going into these details. An English doctor told me that
once when he was examining a sick Indian, to his surprise, neither
the man himself nor his friends took much interest in the process.
After answering a few questions in a sullen manner, they ex-
claimed, " We thought you were a doctor."

When an Indian becomes really sick he yields to his weakness,
gives himself up to die, and is the most abject of creatures. The
drumming on the tom-tom seems to rouse him a little, and to
keep up his courage. An Indian canoeman once fell sick on
my hands, and obliged me to stop my journey and stay in camp
for two or three days in order to nurse him. He secretly sent
word by some friend to bring a reputed medicine-man who was
then camped at a considerable distance away. I was treating
him as well as circumstances would permit with the aid of a
small assortment of medicines which I had along with me. He
was about well, and able to resume work the following day, when
the medicine-man arrived late in the evening, after I had turned
into my blankets. He and the friends Avho had come with him

9

/■■,

made the night hideous with their tom-toms and the monotonous
" hi-ya, hai-ya ; hai-ya, hi-ya" ! But as they had great faith
in it, I did not interfere. Going over to my patient at daylight,
I enquired how he had stood it. He repUed that he was now
(juite well, that the medicine-man (who, by the way, was sleep-
ing triumphantly close by) had driven off the spirit of his sick-
ness, that it was now far away, and he was ready for work again.
He did not recognize that he had to thank either myself or nature
for the cure.

The Indian doctors do not understand the nature of delirium.
When a patient becomes delirious, as in fevers, etc., they say he
is about to " turn windigo " — that is, to become possessed of an
irresistible desire for cannibalism. It was then the doctor's duty
to knock the patient on the head. Many a life has been sacri-
ficed in this way.

Midwifery is completely ignored by the great medicine-man,
as beneath his dignity, and it is left entirely to the female doc-
tors. A profound knowledge of obstetrics is seldom called for,
as parturition is generally extremely easy, owing, principally,
to the comparatively small size of the infant's head. Delivery
is effected by placing the patient on her hands and knees on
the ground, and supporting the abdomen by the hands of the
accoucheuse.

In surgery, the medicine-men confine themselves to setting
bones, dressing wounds and ulcers, and alleviating pain by any
means in their power. They never attempt any grave operation,
although their general knowledge of anatomy is not to be despised.
They resort to cupping by means of sucking-tubes. They some-
times bleed by onening a vein in the arm with a sharp chip of
flint. I hav' some evi^lence, in the shape of relics discovered
in mounds, vhich leads rac to think that certain of the ancient
Indians had a better knowledge of surgery than those of the

present day.

The sweat-bath is in universal use. In preparing for a race,
or any other great muscular effort, they sometimes anoint the
body and have the muscles kneaded by a friend after taking
one of these baths.

10

The wild Eskimo appear to suffer from fewer diseases than
Indians or whites. Among those of Hudson's Straits, notions
of medicine are, as far as can be learned or observed, more
crude and primitive than among the Indians. They also
have a class of medicine-men whose pretensions to perform
all kinds of miracles are of the most extravagant character.
They appear to deal almost entirely in the supernatural,
and to make little use of medicines. They have no hesi-
tation in declaring to their own people that they can cure
all kinds of disease and prolong life indefinitely, if they only
choose to do so. They account for their own death by saying
they wish to die, or that they are overcome by a still greater,
but unseen, medicine-man. They say they can and do make
themselves larger or smaller at will, or change themselves into
some other animal, or enter into a piece of wood or stone ; that
they can walk on the water or fly in the air ; but there is one
indispensable condition,— no one must see them. They find
themselves powerless to perform these miracles if anyone is look-
ing on. I was once called to prescribe for a noted medicine-man
on the Eastmain coast of Hudson's Bay, who had accidentally
shot himself through the abdomen, and was suffering from peri-
tonitis. All his pretensions had vanished, and he was most anxious
to live. When one of these doctors visits a patient, after ascertain-
ing the seat of the disease, he will rub and blow on the part
and then withdraw his hand slowly and as if with difiicultv, in
order to show that he is hauling out a heavy weight of pain ;
at the same time he looks upward, rolls his eyes, and groans.
Having pulled the disease out of his patient's body, he throws
it away with a great effort, muttering some imprecation, after
which he breathes more fn ly and looks for his fee, immediate
payment being required by their rules of etiquette. Some
of the Eskimo women profess to be doctors. They have a few
minor surgical appliances, and they alleviate the pains of rheu-
matism, scurvy, sprains, etc., by rubbing or manipulating the
parts afifected. But their chief mode of cure is by strokinf^ the
body with an air of mystery while repeating charms. The doctor
is generally accompanied by other women,who join in the choruses
of the charms.

11

The following are some of the plants used medicinally by the
Outchipwai Indians : —

Acorns calamus, sweet flag or " fire-root," as infusion or in
powder, or it may be chewed whole, for colds and Jatulence.
NiipJtar advena. yellow pond-lily, as a tonic and for poultices.
AUcH alba and A. nigra, spruce. The fresh inner bark is
beaten to a fine homogeneous pulp to form astringent poultices
for healing obstinate sores. Dr. Mathews of York Factory
states that a decoction of the leaves or spray is used internally
for scurvy and externally for rheumatism.

Abies balsamea, the balsam tree. The clear liquid " gum "
from the blisters is applied freely to fresh wounds, and a decoc-
tion made from the bark is taken in large doses for diseases of
the chest.

jSalix and Populus. Decoctions of the bark of both willows
and poplars are taken as l)itter tonics and in fevers. Dr.
Mathews informs me that the Indians of A'ork Factory find a
powerful astringent in one of the dwarf or creeping willows ;
also, that they drink an infusion of the bark of the grey willow,
n. small tree of that region, for rheumatism.

Lonicent ciliata, honeysuckle, and Kibes rubrum, wild red
currant. Tiie stems and twigs of these two shrubs are tied into
bundles and boiled together in a comparatively small quantity of
water ; the strong decoction is taken in large doses for diseases
of the bladder.

Jtiniperns commvnis, jiraiper. The Indians, generally, know
the diuretic properties of the berries. In some parts of the
country the stems are boiled and the inner bark beaten to a
pulp to form ])Oultices for foul sores.

Ledum latifolinm, Labrador tea. A decoction of leaves and
flowers is used for diarrhoea. A weak infusion is sometimes
taken as a poor substitute for tea. The chewed leaves are
applied to wounds and skin affections. Dr. Haydon, who re-
sided six years at Moose Factory, says a decoction of the leaves
or flowers is used in which to boil clean rotten wood of the white
birch, which is afterwards dried, pounded and sifted. The

12

powder is used as a remedy for chafing and to dust new-born
infanta. He considers it a useful application.

Cornus circinata, C. sericea and 0. stolonifera. An infusion
of the bark of any of these dogwoods is taken in moderate doses
for diarrhoea. A decoction of any of them in large doses
is reported to be emetic. In small doses, the decoction is
taken for fevers, colds and coughs. The bark dried quickly at
the fire is used to smoke, either alone or mixed with tobacco.

7m versicolor, blue-flag. The dried root in powder is used
as a cathartic.

Prunus Pennsylvanica, pigeon cherry. A decoction of the
bark is employed as an invigorating tonic in debilitated states of
the system.

Pi/ruff Americana, mountain ash. A decoction of the young
shoots is used as a tonic, and also, according to Dr. Haydon, for
pleurisy, or what appears to be this disease from the symptoms
they describe.

Mentha Canadensin, wild mint. The infusion as a carminative.

Prunnella vulgaris, self-heal, l^aid by Dr. Haydon to be
chewed for sore throat.

Poly gala senega, snake root. The word senega is one of the
varieties of the Outcbipwai name for this plant, and means
yellow-root. It grows principally in very calcareous soils, and
is not found beyond latitude 52^ in the region north of the great
lakes. It is highly prized by the Indians, and is used by them
in inflammation of the lungs, colds, coughs and sore throats.

A knowledge of the medicinal properties of the plants of the
region I have referred to might often prove valuable. In distant
travels in this northern wilderness the stock of medicines which
one can take with him is necessarily very limited, or one may
chance to have none at all. In case of emerg ncy, it is there-
fore desirable to know the virtues of the native plants, always
at hand, in order that one may make the most of them in the
absence of more powerful remedies.

The Eskimo, who live entirely on raw animal food, appear to

13

regard any edible vegetable substance as medicine They eat
wirh great relish the northern blueberries and cranberries, and
where they cannot get these, they take the leave? of the dwarf
willows, a plant of the parsley family, called - scurvy-grass "
{Ligmticuiii), and almost any kind of sea-weed. On the shores
of Hudson's Straits they collect and eat the starchy roots of
Polyiiomim oivip(trin7i,vihich grows there in considerable abun
dance. It is a singular circumstance that, notwithstanding the
sameness of their food, and the fact that they never wash either
their bodies or their clothing, the Eskimo appear never to be
afflicted with scurvy, whereas white men, under a similar regi-
men, would be almost certain to be attacked.